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Disclaimer: The Treatise is based upon federal appellate court decisions from 1996 to 2008. We are currently in the process of updating the Treatise. Until that update is complete, it is possible that certain cases cited in the Treatise may no longer represent current law.

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Chapter 13 - Disability Discrimination

Overview

13.100 Introduction to ADA and Rehabilitation Act
13.200 Disability
13.300 Qualified individual / otherwise qualified
13.400 Issues in disparate treatment claims
13.500 Medical inquiries
13.600 Benefits
13.700 [Reserved]
13.800 Drug and alcohol issues

13.900 Miscellaneous

Detail

13.100 Introduction to ADA and Rehabilitation Act
          13.110 Overview
                    13.111 Similarities and differences between the ADA and the Rehabilitation Act
                              13.111.10 Federal employees
                              13.111.20 Rehabilitation Act's receipt of federal funds requirement
                              13.111.30 Affirmative action requirements
                    13.112 Issues unique to the ADA
                              13.112.10 Title VII as precedent for ADA cases
                              13.112.20 Does Title II of ADA apply to employment claims?
                         13.113 Issues unique to the Rehabilitation Act
                              13.113.10 Federal employees: Section 501 or Section 504
                                               13.113.11 Rehabilitation Act (not ADA) applies to federal
                                                             employees
                                               13.113.12 ADA standards apply to Rehabilitation Act claims of
                                                             federal employees
                                               13.113.13 Affirmative action requirement under Section 501
                              13.113.20 Prima facie case under the Rehabilitation Act
                                            13.113.21 Section 501
                                            13.113.22 Section 504
                    13.114 Proving "because of disability" claims verses "reasonable accommodation"
                              claims
                              13.114.10 Whether a claim is a reasonable accommodation claim
                              13.114.20 Are "because of disability" claims and "reasonable
                                            accommodation"
                                            claims actually two separate claims or two means of proving the
                                            same statutory claim?
                              13.114.30 Plaintiff must be clear as to which claim he or she is
                                            pursuing
                    13.115 Employer cannot rely on stereotypes to make decision that employee or
                              applicant cannot perform a job based on a disability
                    13.116 Employer's reliance on medical advice in making its employment decision
                    13.117 Whether the EEOC's ADA regulations are binding
                    13.118 Rehabilitation Act regulations are not binding, but . . .
                    13.119 Plaintiff must plead or prove the major life activities at issue
          13.120 Proving disparate treatment (or "because of disability") claims
                    13.121 Statutory authority
                    13.122 Direct and indirect methods of proof
                    13.123 McDonnell Douglas analysis
                              13.123.10 Prima facie case
                                            13.123.11 Rehabilitation Act prima facie case
                              13.123.20 Second and third prongs of McDonnell Douglas
                              13.123.30 When McDonnell Douglas should be used
                    13.124 "Because of disability" requirement under ADA
                    13.125 "Solely" because of disability requirement under the Rehabilitation Act
                    13.126 Adverse employment action requirement
                              13.126.10 "Denial of training" is an adverse action under the ADA
                    13.127 Different types of adverse employment actions
          13.130 Proving reasonable accommodation claims
                    13.131 Statutory authority
                    13.132 Employee's burden to establish a prima facie case
                    13.133 Generic prima facie case
                              13.133.10 ADA
                              13.133.20 Rehabilitation Act
                    13.134 Evidence of discriminatory animus unnecessary
          13.140 Disparate impact cases
          13.150 Associational claims
                    13.151 Statutory authority
          13.160 Interaction with the Family and Medical Leave Act
                    13.161 "Disability" under the ADA and "serious health condition" under the FMLA
                              are different standards
                    13.162 Person must be able to perform essential functions in order to qualify for
                              intermittent or reduced schedule FMLA leave
          13.170 Whether disability-related misconduct is protected

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13.200 Disability
          13.210 Three alternative definitions of disability
                    13.211 Statutory authority
                    13.212 Regulations addressing whether someone is disabled
                              13.212.10 Regulations addressing whether someone is disabled from the
                                            major life activity of working
                              13.212.20 EEOC Interpretative Guidance suggests consideration of major life
                                            activity of working as a last resort
                    13.213 Regulations addressing whether someone is regarded as disabled
                    13.214 Regulations addressing whether someone has a record of a disability
          13.220 Person with a disability
                    13.221 Existence of impairment
                              13.221.10 Definition of impairment
                              13.221.20 Plaintiff's duty to identify impairment
                              13.221.30 Determination is a question of law
                              13.221.40 Obesity as an impairment
                    13.222 Major life activity
                              13.222.10 Definition of major life activity
                              13.222.20 Teachings of Bragdon v. Abbott
                              13.222.30 Plaintiff's duty to identify major life activity affected by
                                             impairment
                              13.222.40 Determination is a question of law
                    13.223 Specific major life activities
                              13.223.01 Bending
                              13.223.02 Bodily functions
                                            13.223.02.01 Bladder function
                                            13.223.02.02 Bowel function
                                            13.223.02.03 Brain function
                                            13.223.02.04 Cell growth                                           
                                            13.223.02.05 Circulatory function
                                            13.223.02.06 Cleansing and eliminating waste from blood
                                            13.223.02.07 Digestive function
                                            13.223.02.08 Endocrine function
                                            13.223.02.09 Immune system function
                                            13.223.02.10 Neurological function
                                            13.223.02.11 Reproductive function
                                            13.223.02.12 Respiratory function

                              13.223.03 Breathing
                              13.223.04 Caring for oneself
                              13.223.05 Caring for others
                              13.223.06 Climbing
                              13.223.07 Communicating
                              13.223.08 Concentrating and remembering
                              13.223.09 Driving
                              13.223.10 Eating
                              13.223.11 Everyday mobility
                              13.223.12 Hearing
                              13.223.13 Household chores
                              13.223.14 Interacting with others
                                            13.223.14.10 Getting along with others is different from
                                                               interacting with others
                              13.223.15 Learning
                              13.223.16 Lifting
                              13.223.17 Manual tasks
                              13.223.18 Physical exertion
                              13.223.19 Reaching
                              13.223.20 Reading
                              13.223.21 Seeing
                              13.223.22 Sexual activity
                              13.223.23 Sitting
                              13.223.24 Sleeping
                              13.223.25 Speaking
                              13.223.26 Standing
                              13.223.27 Thinking
                              13.223.28 Travel (including air travel)
                              13.223.29 Walking
                                            13.223.29.10 Walking up stairs
                              13.223.30 Working
                    13.224 Whether impairment substantially limits a major life activity
                              13.224.10 Regulatory definition
                              13.224.20 Courts' interpretation of substantially limits
                              13.224.30 Definition of substantially limits with regards to major life activity
                                            of working
                              13.224.40 Determination is a question of fact
                                            13.224.41 Employee has burden of proving disability
                              13.224.50 Determination requires individualized inquiry
                              13.224.60 Consideration of corrective measures
                                            13.224.61 Corrective measure may substantially limit a major
                                                           life activity
                              13.224.70 Types of proof
                                            13.224.71 Necessity of medical proof
                                            13.224.72 Necessity of comparative evidence
                                            13.224.73 Necessity of vocational expert proof
                              13.224.80 Miscellaneous issues concerning whether impairment
                                                substantially limits
                                            13.224.81 Health problems triggered by single workplace are not
                                                          sufficient to substantially limit a major life activity
                    13.225 Whether an impairment substantially limits the following major life
                               activities
                              13.225.01 Bladder condition
                              13.225.02 Breathing
                              13.225.03 Caring for oneself
                              13.225.04 Caring for others
                              13.225.05 Cleansing and eliminating waste from blood
                              13.225.06 Climbing
                              13.225.07 Concentrating and remembering
                              13.225.08 Driving
                              13.225.09 Eating
                              13.225.10 Eliminating waste from body
                              13.225.11 Everyday mobility
                              13.225.12 Hearing
                              13.225.13 Household chores
                              13.225.14 Interacting with others
                              13.225.15 Kidney condition
                              13.225.16 Learning
                              13.225.17 Lifting
                              13.225.18 Liver function
                              13.225.19 Manual tasks
                              13.225.20 Physical exertion
                              13.225.21 Procreation / Reproduction
                              13.225.22 Reaching
                              13.225.23 Reading
                              13.225.24 Seeing
                              13.225.25 Sexual activity
                              13.225.26 Sitting
                              13.225.27 Sleeping
                              13.225.28 Speaking
                              13.225.29 Thinking
                              13.225.30 Travel
                              13.225.31 Walking
                              13.225.32 Working
                                            13.225.32.10 Definition of "broad range of jobs" or "class of jobs"
                                            13.225.32.20 Whether certain jobs constitute a "broad range of
                                                               jobs" or a "class of jobs"
                                                               13.225.32.21 OTR truck driver
                                                               13.225.32.22 Police officer
                                            13.225.32.30 Whether the inability to work overtime constitutes
                                                               a substantial limitation
                                            13.225.32.40 Employee not disabled based on inability to work for
                                                               particular supervisor
                                                              13.225.32.41 Supervisor could trigger a disability
          13.230 Person regarded as having such an impairment
                    13.231 Standard for proving "regarded as" claims
                              13.231.10 Regarded as disabled re working
                    13.232 General principles
                              13.232.10 Employer's knowledge of medical condition is insufficient to
                                            establish "regarded as disabled"
                              13.232.20 Can evidence of pretext be considered as part of prima facie
                                             case to establish "regard as" disabled?
                              13.232.30 Whether offer of accommodation is evidence that employer
                                            regarded employee as disabled?
                              13.232.40 Person who cannot meet DOT regulations is not regarded as
                                            disabled
                              13.232.50 Employer's request for IME is insufficient to establish "regarded
                                             as disabled"
                              13.232.60 Employer's reliance on medical advice
                              13.232.70 Employee who was fine when hired is more likely to be regarded
                                             as disabled if an illness or injury develops
                              13.232.80 Repetitive motion screening test
                    13.233 No "good faith" defense, but . . .
          13.240 Person with a record of such an impairment
                    13.241 Hospital stay not sufficient
          13.250 Cases addressing particular medical impairments or conditions
                    13.251 List of impairments or conditions
                              13.251.01 AIDS / HIV positive
                              13.251.02 Alcohol addiction or alcoholism
                              13.251.03 Allergies
                              13.251.04 Anxiety or stress disorder
                              13.251.05 Asthma
                              13.251.06 Attention Deficit Disorder
                              13.251.07 Bell's Palsy
                              13.251.08 Bipolar disorder
                              13.251.09 Bladder condition
                              13.251.10 Cancer
                                            13.251.10.10 Prostate cancer
                              13.251.11 Cerebral Palsy
                              13.251.12 Depression
                              13.251.13 Diabetes
                              13.251.14 Drug addiction
                              13.251.15 Epilepsy
                              13.251.16 Hearing or deafness
                              13.251.17 Heart conditions
                                            13.251.17.10 Heart attack
                                            13.251.17.20 Pacemaker
                              13.251.18 Incontinence
                              13.251.19 Irritable Bowel Syndrome
                              13.251.20 Lymphoma
                              13.251.21 Meniere's disease
                              13.251.22 Pancreatitis
                              13.251.23 Panic disorder or attacks
                              13.251.24 Phobia about driving in unfamiliar places
                              13.251.25 Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
                              13.251.26 Psoriasis
                              13.251.27 Reproductive issues
                                            13.251.27.10 Infertility
                                            13.251.27.20 Pregnancy
                              13.251.28 Sleep apnea
                              13.251.29 Vision problems
                                            13.251.29.10 Congenital nystagmus
                                            13.251.29.20 Macular degeneration
                                            13.251.29.30 Monocular vision
          13.260 Employer must know of disability
          13.270 Requirement that disability be permanent or long-term
                    13.271 EEOC regulation
                    13.272 Case law

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13.300 Qualified individual / otherwise qualified
          13.310 Statute and regulation
          13.320 General principles
                    13.321 Proving who is a qualified individual
                              13.321.10 Plaintiff bears burden of proof
                              13.321.20 Cases addressing what plaintiff must prove
                    13.322 Definition of qualified individual
                              13.322.10 Qualified individual includes job employee holds or desires
                              13.322.20 Time of employment action governs determination
                                            13.322.21 Court relies, in part, on subsequent events to support
                                                          finding that plaintiff was disabled
                              13.322.30 Employee who rejects offer of reasonable accommodation is no
                                            longer qualified individual
                              13.322.40 Employee who poses threat of intentional harm is not a qualified
                                            individual
                    13.323 Specific situations
                              13.323.10 Former employee not qualified due to prior job performance issues
                              13.323.20 Truck driver must meet DOT minimum requirements
                                            13.323.21 Truck driver must exhaust DOT administrative remedies
                              13.323.30 Totally disabled employee cannot be a qualified individual
                              13.323.40 "100% healed" policy
                              13.323.50 Disability retiree is not a qualified individual
          13.330 Essential functions
                    13.331 Statutory definition
                    13.332 Regulation
                    13.333 General principles
                              13.333.10 What constitutes an essential job function?
                                            13.333.11 Determination is normally a question of fact for jury
                                            13.333.12 Who has burden of proof as to which job functions are
                                                          essential?
                                            13.333.13 Job functions performed only sometimes or even rarely
                                                          can still be essential
                              13.333.20 Does judge or jury determine whether plaintiff can perform the
                                            essential functions of the job?
                              13.333.30 Employee's self-serving affidavit that he is able to perform
                                            essential job functions may not create a jury question
                    13.334 Regular attendance
                    13.335 Whether particular tasks are essential functions
                              13.335.01 Ability to work full time
                              13.335.02 Ability to work overtime
                              13.335.03 Arriving at work on time
                              13.335.04 Handle stress
                              13.335.05 Job rotation
                              13.335.06 Physical presence at the plant
                              13.335.07 Vacuuming by hotel housekeeper
                              13.335.08 Work well with others
                    13.336 Whether informal accommodations should be considered
          13.340 Reasonable accommodations
                    13.341 Statutory definition
                    13.342 Regulation
                    13.343 General principles
                              13.343.10 Determining reasonableness of accommodation
                                            13.343.11 Reasonableness of accommodation is a question of
                                                          fact
                              13.343.20 An accommodation does not become "reasonable" (meaning
                                            required under the law) just because the employer chose to
                                            voluntarily provide that accommodation for a period of time
                              13.343.30 Duty to accommodate is continuing -- one effort may not be
                                            enough
                                            13.343.31 However, no duty to continue offering
                                                          accommodations where employee has refused a
                                                          reasonable accommodation
                              13.343.40 Delay in providing an accommodation may be actionable
                              13.343.50 No duty to provide employee the accommodation of his or her
                                            choice
                                            13.343.51 No duty to reassign employee to position of employee's
                                                          preference
                    13.344 Employee's duty to request accommodation
                              13.344.10 Employees with mental disabilities
                              13.344.20 Who can request an accommodation
                              13.344.30 Accommodation requested must be linked to employee's disability
                    13.345 Duty to engage in interactive process
                              13.345.10 Statute
                              13.345.20 Regulation
                              13.345.30 EEOC Interpretive Guidance
                              13.345.40 Explanation of "interactive process" requirement
                                            13.345.41 Whether employer must involve employee's attorney
                                                          or expert
                              13.345.50 Proof necessary to show failure to engage in interactive process
                                            13.345.51 Failure to engage in interactive process as prima facie
                                                          evidence of bad faith
                              13.345.60 Whether failure to engage in interactive process is a basis for
                                            liability in and of itself
                              13.345.70 Whether failure to engage in interactive process results in
                                            automatic denial of summary judgment
                              13.345.80 Employee can fail to engage in the interactive process
                                            13.345.81 No duty to offer additional accommodations after
                                                          employee fails to engage in interactive process
                              13.345.90 Different ways employer can satisfy duty to engage in interactive
                                            process
                    13.346 Duty to restructure or create position
                              13.346.10 No duty to create position
                                            13.346.11 No duty to create part-time position
                              13.346.20 No duty to eliminate or restructure essential job functions
                                            13.346.21 No duty to restructure temporary light duty position
                                                          into permanent position
                    13.347 Duty to transfer to vacant position
                              13.347.10 Duty to transfer is an accommodation of last resort
                              13.347.20 What must employee do to trigger duty?
                              13.347.30 Position must already exist and be vacant
                                            13.347.31 Employee bears burden of proof that a position existed
                                                          and was vacant
                                            13.347.32 Duty to transfer to position that will become vacant in
                                                          near future
                              13.347.40 Plaintiff must be qualified for position
                              13.347.50 What vacant positions must the employer consider?
                                            13.347.51 No duty to promote
                                            13.347.52 Transfer to an inferior position can be a reasonable
                                                          accommodation
                                            13.347.53 No duty to reassign employee to position of employee's
                                                          preference
                              13.347.60 Is disabled employee entitled to preference over non-disabled
                                            employee seeking vacant position?
                              13.347.70 No duty to transfer if it would create an undue hardship
                    13.348 Possible accommodations
                              13.348.10 Intermittent, additional or unpaid leave
                              13.348.20 Change supervisors
                              13.348.30 Modification of work environment
                                            13.348.31 Stress-free work environment
                              13.348.40 Working from home or from remote location
                              13.348.50 Returning to work on trial basis
                    13.349 Miscellaneous issues
                              13.349.10 Right to accommodation where employee is only regarded as
                                            disabled
                              13.349.20 Rights of co-workers / seniority system
                              13.349.30 No duty to accommodate misconduct of alcoholic or illegal drug
                                            user
          13.350 Reasonable accommodation vs. undue hardship
                    13.351 Interaction between "reasonable accommodation" and "undue hardship
                    13.352 Undue hardship
                              13.352.10 Statutory authority
                              13.352.20 Regulation
                              13.352.30 Cases explaining "undue hardship"
          13.360 Employer's defenses
                    13.361 Statutory authority
                    13.362 Regulations
                              13.362.10 Qualification standards, tests or selection criteria
                              13.362.20 Direct threat to health or safety
                              13.362.30 Religious entities
                              13.362.40 Infectious diseases and food handling
                    13.363 Qualification standards, tests or selection criteria
                              13.363.10 Proving business necessity defense
                                            13.363.11 Employer has burden of proof
                              13.363.20 Cases addressing business necessity defense
                    13.364 Direct threat to health or safety
                              13.364.10 Proving direct threat
                                            13.364.11 Which party has burden of proof
                                            13.364.12 Individualized assessment
                                            13.364.13 Employer entitled to obtain medical exam
                              13.364.20 Direct threat means threat to individuals or others
                              13.364.30 Direct threat cases by type
                                            13.364.31 Alcohol
                                            13.364.32 Diabetic
                                            13.364.33 Heart condition
                                            13.364.34 HIV-positive
                                            13.364.35 Mental problems
                                            13.364.36 Off-duty conduct
                              13.364.40 Direct threat in the context of associational discrimination claims

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13.400 Issues in disparate treatment claims
          13.410 Employee's failure to take corrective measures            

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13.500 Medical inquiries
          13.510 Statute on medical examinations and inquiries
          13.520 General principles
                    13.521 Whether person must be "disabled" in order to bring a claim for an improper
                              medical inquiry
                    13.522 Whether person must be able to prove cognizable injury
          13.530 Pre-employment inquiries
                    13.531 Whether MMPI is a medical exam
          13.540 Employee entrance examinations
                    13.541 Permissibility of mental health examinations
                    13.542 Basis for withdrawing a conditional offer of employment
          13.550 Fitness for duty exams or inquiries of current employees
                    13.551 Request for exam as constituting evidence of discrimination
                    13.552 Determination of business necessity
                              13.552.10 Mental or physical exam as precondition of returning to work
                    13.553 Drug tests of former substance abusers
                    13.554 Does employee or employer pay for fitness for duty exam?
                    13.555 If employer is a governmental entity, is the Fourth Amendment implicated?
          13.560 Fitness for duty exams or inquiries of former employees
         13.570 Confidentiality
                    13.571 Employee entrance examinations
                    13.572 IMEs or inquiries of current employees
                    13.573 Alleged violations of confidentiality requirement

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13.600 Benefits
          13.610 In general
          13.620 Health insurance
          13.630 Disability benefits
                    13.631 Whether plaintiff must be a "qualified individual with a disability?
                    13.632 Whether providing greater benefits for physical disabilities as opposed to
                              mental disabilities violates the ADA or Rehabilitation Act?
                    13.633 Whether providing coverage for some types of transplants, but not others,
                              violates the ADA?

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13.700 [Reserved]

[TOP]

 

13.800 Drug and alcohol issues
          13.810 Statutory authority
          13.820 Statutory overview
                    13.821 Qualified individual
                              13.821.10 Qualified individual does not include someone "currently" using
                                            illegal drugs
                                            13.821.11 Definition of "currently"
                              13.821.20 Employee's safe harbor provision
                                            13.821.21 Can employee prevent termination by enrolling in drug
                                                          treatment program?
                    13.822 Drugs and alcohol in the workplace
                    13.823 Drug testing not a medical exam
                              13.823.10 Drug testing and DOT regulations
          13.830 Decisions by circuit

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13.900 Miscellaneous
          13.910 Last Chance Agreements
          13.920 [Reserved]
          13.930 [Reserved]
          13.940 [Reserved]
          13.950 [Reserved]
          13.960 [Reserved]
          13.970 [Reserved]
          13.980 Issues unique to ADA
          13.990 Issues unique to the Rehabilitation Act
                    13.991 Federal employees
                              13.991.10 Interaction Rehabiltation Act with Federal Employees'
                                            Compensation Act

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